C. Julius Caesar, De bello Gallico
T. Rice Holmes, Ed.

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Gallia: that is, Transalpine Gaul, excluding the Roman province （Provincia） in the southeast, as well as Gallia Cisalpina, now northern Italy. It occupied the territory of France, including the country to the Rhine boundary, with most of the Netherlands and Switzerland （see Map, Fig. 2）. — omnis （predicate）, as a whole. — est divisa, is divided: the adjective use of the participle, not the perfect passive （§ 495 (291.b); G. 250. R. 2; H. 550. N. 2）. — unam: sc. partem.

incolunt: in translation （not in reading the Latin to make out the sense）, change the voice to the passive in order to preserve the emphasis in the English idiom. It is well to acquire the habit of making such changes. The natural English form would be: of which one is inhabited by the Belgians, etc., but the Latin uses the active voice. The moment you find an accusative beginning a sentence, if it seems from its meaning to be a direct object, you can at once think of it as a subject in the nominative （at the same time noticing that the Latin does not make it such）. The verb can then be instantly thought of as a passive and the subject as agent. This inversion is so common in Latin for purposes of rhetoric that such a device is a very helpful one, and if properly used from the start need not obscure the Latin construction. The Latin plays upon the position of words to produce all sorts of shades of rhetorical expression, and it is never too early to observe these shades and try to render them in our own idiom.— Belgae: probably of the Cymric branch of the Celtic race, allied to the Britons and the modern Welsh; they inhabited the modern Belgium and northern France, and were considerably mixed with Germans （see Bk. ii. ch. 1）. — Aquitani: of the Spanish Iberians （the modern Basques）, inhabiting the districts of the southwest （see Bk. iii. ch. 20）. — aliam: here alteram would be more usual, as meaning the second in the list. — qui … appellantur: notice that in Latin any relative may suggest its own antecedent, as with the indefinite relative （whoever） in English. In English we have to supply a demonstrative （those） who. So here tertiam qui = tertiam partem ei incolunt , qui （see § 307.c (200.c); G. 619; H. 445. 6）. — ipsorum, etc.: notice that the position of words is so significant in Latin, through its indicated emphasis, that it may allow words to be omitted which must be supplied in the thought. In this case the English idiom is the same: in their own tongue … in ours.

Celtae: probably of the Gaelic branch, represented by the Irish and the Highland Scotch. — linguā: abl. of specification （§ 418 (253); G. 397; H. 424） … differunt. The language of the Aquitani was Basque; of the Gauls proper, Celtic; of the Belgians, another dialect of Celtic mixed with German.

inter se = from one another: the preposition inter may be used to show any reciprocal relation （§ 301.f (196.f); G. 221H. 448. N.）. — Gallos: see note on incolunt, l. 2.

dividit: the verb is singular, because the two rivers make one boundary （§ 317.b (205.b); G. 211. R. 1; H. 463. II. 3）.

horum: part. gen. with fortissimi （§ 346.a (216.a); G. 372; H. 397. 3）. — propterea quod, because; lit. because of this, that, etc. The difference between this and the simple quod is only one of greater emphasis — almost as strong as and the reason is or and it is because.

cultu, civilization, as shown by outward signs, dress and habits of life. — humanitate, refinement, of mind or feeling. — provinciae: the province of Gallia Narbonensis, organized about B.C. 120. Its chief cities were Massilia （Marseilles）, an old Greek free city, and the capital, Narbo （Narbonne）, a Roman colony. The name Provincia has come down to us in the modern Provence.

mercatores: these were traders or peddlers, mostly from the seaport of Massilia; they traveled with pack-horses, mules, and wagons. A very common article of traffic, as with our Indian traders, was intoxicating drinks, — wines from the southern coast; which, especially, as Caesar says, "tend to debauch the character." These people, it is said, would give the traders a boy for a jar of wine. — commeant: this verb means, especially, to go back and forth in the way of traffic. The main line of trade lay across the country, by the river Liger （Loire）. — ea: object of important, referring to the luxuries of civilization.

effeminandos: § 506 (300); G. 427; H. 544. —proximi: notice how the three superlatives, longissime, minime, and proximi, are arranged. After the emphatic idea of cultu, etc., is completed, the superlatives begin each its own phrase.

Germanis: dat. with an adjective of nearness （§ 384 (234.a ); G. 359; H. 391. I）. — trans Rhenum: the Rhine was, in general, the boundary between the Gauls and the Germans, and has so remained till modern times. — continenter （adverb from the participle of contineo, hold together）, incessantly; strictly, without any interruption. The pupil should begin at once to notice the way in which words develop into groups expressing the same idea in the forms of the various parts of speech. See p. 443.

qua de causa, and for this reason （§ 278 (180); G. 610; H. 453）: referring back to proximi, etc., and further explained by quod … contendunt. — Helvetii: here, it will be noticed, reckoned as Gauls. — quoque: i.e. just as the Belgians.

reliquos, the rest of: § 293 (193); G. 291. R. 2; H. 440. 2, N. I, 2; notice the emphasis of position; the others as opposed to the Helvetii. — virtute, not virtue, but courage; for construction, see note on lingua, l. 3. — praecedunt, excel; lit. go ahead of.

proeliis: abl. of means; finibus: abl. of separation. — cum prohibent, while they keep them off （pro-habeo）.

ipsi （emphatic）, themselves, the Helvetians; eos and eorum refer to the Germans.

eorum una pars, one division of them （the Gauls or Celts）, the people being identified with the country. — quam … dictum est, which, it has been [already] said, the Gauls hold. Notice that in direct discourse it would be Galli obtinent: the subject nom. is changed to acc., and the indic. to the infin. after the verb of saying, dictum est （§ 561.a (272.R. 2); G. 527; H. 535. I）. Here quam is the object and Gallos the subject of obtinere; while the clause is the subject of dictum est （§ 560 (329, 330, a. 2); G. 528; H. 538）. — obtinere （ob-teneo）, not obtain, but occupy; strictly, hold against all claimants. Ob in composition almost always has the sense of opposing or coming in the way of something. This is one of the many words which have entirely changed their meaning in their descent from the Latin. Always be on your guard against rendering Latin words by the English one corresponding. Obtineo does not mean obtain, nor occupo occupy. The corresponding word is often suggestive as a guide to the meaning, but must not be used without careful examination.

ab Sequanis, on the side of, etc., regarded from the point of view of the Province; a very common use of ab （§ 429.b (260.b); G. 390. 2. N. 6; H. 434. I）.

vergit, etc.,slopes to the North; the highlands （Cevennes） are along the southern boundary, and the rivers in that quarter flow in their main course northerly. — septentriones （septem triones, "the seven plough-oxen"）: i.e. the constellations of the Great and Little Bear. The word is used both in the singular, as below, and in the plural, as here.

Galliae: i.e. Celtic Gaul, the country just described, not Gallia omnis.

spectant: i.e. considered from the Province, it lies in that direction.

ad Hispaniam, next to Spain, i.e. the Bay of Biscay （§ 424.f (259.f); H. 433. I）.

spectat: cf. spectant above. — inter occasum, etc., northwest, i.e. from the Province.